What to do About Golf Carts

 

Intro: 

Approximately 4 years ago my wife and I moved to Mexico and settled in the small coastal town of Bucerias, just up the coast from Puerto Vallarta.  Shortly after we settled in I purchased an old beat-up non-functioning EZGO golf cart and turned it into a work project rebuilding it from the ground up.  Our discovery soon afterward was that a golf cart was the best means of transportation for getting around the town and much more enjoyable than driving our car – also more economical.  For 3 years we were in golf cart bliss going safely everywhere about the town.  People were always stopping us and asking us where they too could get a golf cart.  We noticed an appreciable increase in the number of carts around town.  We always felt safe putting around and not wrecking our car on the bad streets.

With the increase in golf carts there also developed some push back from the local taxi drivers and eventually from the traffic police.  Until this year we had never been stopped by the traffic police and already we have been stopped 3 times and given warnings.  Others have had their golf carts towed.  While towns like Sayulita have completely adapted to using golf carts, ours was experiencing growing pains.

Golf cart rentals have arrived also accelerated in Bucerias with a number of companies offering rentals.  Tourists and expats have been quick to rent and enjoy the use golf carts brings.  I decided myself to purchase some additional carts for rentals, and formed a golf cart owners association to provide a platform for support and in dealing with governing bodies.  I expect that the towns of Bucerias and LaCruz will soon be similar to Punta Mita and Sayulita with 100s of golf carts.  How the police and the politicians respond will have a direct bearing on the growth of carting in the area and its spin offs into the tourism industry.  Tourism is the primary industry and golf carts will be demanded more and more in future.  How they are handled is of concern to a rapidly growing number of people.

 

The Challenge:

The question of how golf carts should be regulated has become an issue for most municipal and state governments throughout North America.  The popularity of using golf carts as a primary mode of transportation has exploded in the last 10-15 years and many experts believe that golf carts and low speed electric vehicles will be a more significant player in public transportation than the electric car.  “According to Somers of the golf car trade association, sales of the vehicles have shown a “tremendous uptick” because they are economical, environmentally friendly and easy to operate.” ¹

Retirement communities and resorts were the first to take the carts off the golf course, but neighborhood use is quickly spreading across the country.  Golf carts are used at businesses, apartment complexes, colleges and on athletic fields.  Thomas Bartman of Harvard Business School states that there is a rapid increase of low speed vehicles in 3 areas:  “The first is where people don’t need all the performance of a traditional car…(campuses, retirement communities, tourist destinations). The second place that we’re seeing demand grow is in very unique applications where the low-speed electric vehicle actually performs better than a traditional vehicle,” Bartman said. “An example of that is delivery vehicles in New York City….The third place we’re seeing a lot of demand build is actually in emerging markets.” ¹¹ Over 400,000 low speed electric vehicles were sold in China in 2015 and is expected to top 1 million by 2020.

Today, there are more than 2 million carts in the United States and because of their popularity, regulatory bodies have been pushed to come up with regulations regarding their use and safety.  Currently 49 out of 50 states have regulations regarding the use of low speed vehicles (20-25 mi/hr) , and most have some form of regulation regarding the lower speed golf cart (generally 12-15 mi/hr) .  In many retirement communities like “the Villages” in Florida, golf carts are the primary mode of transportation for most of the residents, and the area is now home to over 65,000 golf carts.

Outside of the US, the countries of Canada and Mexico are now finding themselves tackling the issue of golf carts.  While Canada finds itself having a seasonal issue also to work into the mix, trials are being conducted in some select communities to see how the slower speed vehicles work out. British Columbia has recently passed laws allowing low speed vehicles on all streets with speed limits under 40km/hr.    Mexico’s retirement and vacation communities are seeing a rapid increase in demand for the convenience, economy, and environmentally friendliness of the golf cart.  In any community where golf carts begin to proliferate, social media is inundated with many opinions as to their desirability, their safety, and therefore what needs to be done (or not done) to regulate their use.  While all these opinions make some colorful reading, I thought it would be beneficial to look at some underlying facts and statistics regarding the safety and efficiency of using golf carts.  I also wished to look at what experts consider best practices, and what are the best recommendations in how to incorporate lower speed vehicles into the towns and cities where golf carts use is rapidly expanding.  To this end I will look particularly at those areas where there has been a significant history of their use.

 

Golf Cart History:

So, lets start by looking at what can be gleaned from  popular communities in the USA which have done the most to incorporate golf carts into their local traffic:

Palm Desert CA  “The city of Palm Desert, Calif., was a pioneer in the use of golf carts on city streets for older residents who winter there. Its first ordinance was created in 1974, and through the years the city has required the addition of safety features such as seat belts, turn signals and brake lights.”¹

On the city of Palm Desert’s website you will find the following: “ The City of Palm Desert’s Golf Cart Transportation Program is intended to help develop a convenient transportation system that is safe and environmentally sensitive, generating zero auto emissions. Authorized on January 1, 1993, by California Assembly Bill 1229, the program has expanded the use of golf carts beyond transportation in and around golf courses and other recreational amenities by allowing carts on more public streets and private roads.

“In Palm Desert, permitted drivers are allowed to use golf carts for travel to schools, parks, businesses, shopping centers, and government offices.  The program’s long-term goal is to provide full golf cart access throughout the community. ¹⁰

Peachtree City, GA  “Harris Blackwood, director of the Georgia Governor’s Office of Highway Safety, said the Atlanta suburb of Peachtree City has had a long and positive history with golf carts. “It’s a city built on golf carts,” he said of the planned community with a significant retired population, where the carts have been used as a major means of transportation for more than 50 years. He said the state made a concerted effort in recent years to improve safety standards. “At one time, your 9-year-old could take a golf cart to the store,” he said. “If we saw a trend in the number of injuries or number of fatalities, we would certainly take a position, but we’ve not seen that come to pass.” ²

Sun City AZ “Golf carts have been a staple of Sun City since it opened in 1960, when the three-wheeled version was popular with residents and traffic congestion wasn’t nearly the problem it is today.  Officials said 40 to 50 percent of the 27,500 households in Sun City use a golf cart.

Betty Martz and her husband, Bob, moved from another part of the Valley to Sun City about a year ago and quickly came to see the prevalence — and value — of golf-cart ownership.  The Martzes downsized from two cars to one, creating extra space on their property and saving money on insurance, gas and maintenance.  The savings total about $3,500 annually, Betty Martz said” ³

Governments response:

In 1997, aware that golf carts increasingly were migrating from golf courses onto city streets, the National Highway Transportation Safety Administration created a new category called Low Speed Vehicle to regulate safety.  LSV vehicles are capable of reaching 20 to 25 mph and include what the safety administration calls personal neighborhood vehicles, neighborhood electric vehicles and golf cars. LSV are required to have seat belts and other safety devices.  However, golf carts which go slower than 20 mph are less regulated, unless state or local governments set rules.

Safety of golf cart use:

So today having many communities with long histories of golf cart use, we can now effectively look at the safety of the golf cart and the rules that have developed around their use.

NHTSA “As part of the 1998 ruling, NHTSA evaluated 1993–1998 crash statistics from the Fatal Analysis Reporting System (FARS) and the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC). The NHTSA study concluded that deaths and serious injuries resulting from the on-road use of golf carts were not numerous but were occurring.¹ The agency anticipated that the number of serious injuries and deaths would grow with the numbers of vehicles on the roads. In 1998, only 12 states permitted LSVs to operate on public roads. Today, 46 states do ^.4

“Each year, about 13,000 golf cart-related accidents require emergency room visits, and that number is rising as the economical, fun-to-drive carts become more popular on city streets, says Seluga, who analyzed statistics compiled by the U.S. Consumer Products Safety Commission.

“Of those accidents, about 40 percent involve children younger than 16, and half of those are due to a fall from a moving golf cart.

“I’m a strong advocate of seat belts for everyone, but especially for children,” Seluga says. Seluga, who tracks golf cart accidents, says he knows of no deaths caused by rollovers in which people were using seat belts. He agrees it would be impractical to force golfers to use them on the golf course. ¹

So lets look at some of the most popular golf cart locations to see what the statistics are in those areas.

Palm Desert, CA:  “Mark Diercks, the city’s transportation engineer, says golf carts with seat belts have proven safe, and rollovers have not been a problem.  “The only fatal accident involving golf carts that I am aware of in Palm Desert occurred on a golf course, late at night, involving some very intoxicated individuals,” Diercks says. “Seat belts were not involved.”¹

The Villages FL: “There have now been AT LEAST THIRTEEN GOLF CART RELATED FATALITIES in The Villages in the last six years. In the last two years, in addition to three fatalities there were TWENTY-TWO golf cart occupants who were EJECTED from their golf cart and ONE who fell out of a golf cart that had to be ‘trauma alerted’ to Shands, Ocala Regional or Orlando Regional Trauma Centers because of the severity of their injuries. NONE WERE WEARING A SEAT BELT. ⁵

Currently in Florida, anyone 14 or older may drive a golf cart, even without a driver’s license. No seat belts or other safety features are required, although driving is restricted to streets approved for golf carts by local governments.¹

Peachtree City, GA “Lt. Matt Myers of the Peachtree City Police Department “In the last 15 years since I’ve been doing this, there has only been one death,” he said. Most serious collisions are caused by teenagers who drive too fast or turn too quickly; older adults generally don’t do that, he said. “I think it is a misrepresentation to say it is a major safety problem for retirement communities,” he added.”²

Other statistics:

• Similar reports come from California. “It’s not something that rides high on our list of problems,” said Chris Cochran, assistant director of marketing and public affairs for the state’s Office of Traffic Safety. In 2014 there was one death and 17 injuries; in 2015, there was another death and 12 injuries for golf carts statewide. ²
• A study in Georgia showed alcohol was a factor in about 59% of golf cart accidents ⁶
• In a 2007 report based on The National Electronic Injury Surveillance System database used to examine all cases of nonfatal golf cart-related injury treated in U.S. emergency departments (EDs) from 1990 to 2006 it was determined that of golf cart-related injuries with a reported location, 70.3% occurred at sports facilities, 15.2% occurred on streets or public property, and 14.5% occurred around a home or farm.  More than 150,000 people, ranging in age from 2 months to 96 years, were injured in golf cart crashes over that 17-year span. There were at least 39 deaths across the nation due to injuries suffered in golf cart accidents who died in golf cart related accidents, many were the result of golf cart operation in planned gated communities. ⁷ That is slightly less than 3 deaths per year during that time frame.

Regulations, Licensing and Registration:

So, what has been the response and what types of laws and regulations have been put in place.

Valid driver’s licence and Liability Insurance:  Golf cart and LSV licensing and registration rules vary by state. Most states require a valid driver’s license and insurance for all vehicles—golf carts or LSVs—that travel on public roads. Some states, such as Florida, do not require a golf cart operator to hold a driver’s license, but they may establish a minimum age (typically 16) for legal operation of a golf cart on public roads

Speed Limits:  Most states allow golf cart/LSVs to operate on roadways with a maximum speed limit of 35 mph (56km/hr) . Alaska and Texas allow them to operate in certain localities on highways with a maximum speed limit of 45 mph (71km/hr). Illinois, Kansas, Maryland, Massachusetts, and District of Columbia have regulations to restrict LSV to roads with a maximum of 30 mph (47 km/hr), while New Jersey, West Virginia, and Rhode Island restrict LSVs to roadways with a maximum speed limit of 25 mph (39 km/hr)

Intersection Crossings:  With some exceptions, such as Washington and Idaho, most states allow golf cart/LSVs to cross roadways with higher speed limits than the maximum allowable for LSV use. Few regulations, however, specify whether the intersection must be controlled. Those that do, such as Maryland, usually restrict LSV crossings to intersections that have a traffic signal or stop sign

As I am in Mexico looking at what needs to be done here, I choose to look particularly at 4 southern states where golf cart use is 12 months out of the year:

Arizona:  golf cart are allowed on roads with speed limits under 35 miles/hour (56k,/hr).  Golf carts are required to have head lights, brake lights, and a horn.

California:   golf cart are allowed on roads with speed limits under 25 miles/hour (40km/hr).  Golf carts are required to have head lights, brake lights, turn signals, windshields, wipers, mirrors, horn, red reflectors front and side.

Florida:  golf cart are allowed on roads with speed limits under 35 miles/hour.  Golf carts are required to have head lights, brake lights, a horn and you must be 14 years of age or older.

Texas:  golf carts are allowed on roads with speed limits under 35 miles/hour.  All golf carts must be insured and within city limits must have headlights, taillights reflectors, parking brakes, mirrors and a slow-moving vehicle emblem on the rear.

Safety Statistics – A comparison to regular vehicles (cars, trucks, buses etc.) and motorcycles

So, lets take a hard look at the statistics of safety on a golf cart and compare that to operating a motor vehicle (car, truck etc.) or a motorcycle.

There are over 10,000 emergency room visits each year result from golf cart accidents, according to the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) This is out of 2 million golf carts.  That is one hospital visit for every 200 golf carts/year.   Deaths related to golf carts nationwide is not readily available, but in the Villages, there were 2 fatalities/year over a 6 year span attributed to 65,000 golf carts.  1 death for every 32,500 golf carts.  It appears the villages has the highest death rate reported that I could find – I believe that is the result of allowing younger drivers to take to the road.

As far as cars/trucks there were some 268.8 million motor vehicles registered in the USA in 2016.  There were 37,461 deaths involving automobiles. That is 102 deaths per day or 1 death for every 7, 125 vehicles registered.  In 2010–2011, there were an estimated 3.9 million annual average ED visits for motor vehicle traffic injuries. The overall ED visit rate for motor vehicle traffic injuries was 129 per 10,000 persons⁹  That’s one hospital visit for every 69 motor vehicles (3 times more than golf carts)

Compare the Villages/golf carts to licenced vehicles/deaths  there is 1 death for every 32,500 golf carts per year vs 1 death for every 7,175 vehicles.  4 ½ times more likely to die by car than by golf cart.

Motorcycles—account for 15% of traffic deaths in the USA, while only accounting for 1% of total miles driven.  There are between 4000 and 5000 deaths/year from 8, 410,255 registered motorcycles.  1 death for every 1, 682 motorcycles.  4 to 5 times more than a regular motor vehicle and 20 times more than if operating a golf cart.

When I consider what this statistic would be in Mexico this number would be exponentially higher considering how few traffic rules motorcyclists obey, how they drive through the middle of traffic, pass on the shoulder, and race lights.  There are a number of motorcycle deaths each year in the small town I live in, and I have personally witnessed a handful of motorcycle deaths that I have come upon while driving.

Some statistics to take into consideration:

• The majority of accidents on golf carts occur on golf courses (steep hills and winding trails) or private property.2 While the numbers would be higher today, from 1990 to 2006 only 15% of accidents occurred on public roads or property.⁷
• Far more people are killed on the golf course by lightning than any other cause

Other considerations:

• Traffic studies conclude that an increase of 1 km/hr can have a 1 to 4% increase in accidents. It is the exceptionally slow speeds of golf carts that has kept them so safe.
• What about mixing golf carts with faster moving vehicles. Studies show that a 10 km/hr speed difference in lower speed urban areas can cause a 2 – 4% increase in accidents.  A 15km difference can increase accidents by 4 to 10%.  Almost all the accidents occur to the faster moving vehicle.14
• Because golf cart offer little protection from impact with a vehicle, I would like to provide some statistics relating to pedestrians being hit by a vehicle. The risk of a pedestrian being killed by a car is 5 times greater in a speed zone of 50km/hr than it is at 30 km/hr.    Increase the speed to 60 km/hr and the risk quadruples again. 15  Other studies show the following:  At 32km/hr there is a 5% risk of being killed, at 48 km/hr there is a 45% risk, and at 64 mi/hr there is a 85% risk of being killed. 16  At 20 kim there is almost a 0% risk of being killed.

Conclusions:

So what should be taken from all this:

1. Golf carts by and large are exponentially safer than cars or motorcycles.  This can be attributed mostly to the speed in which they are driven.  With canopies golf carts are as easy seen as a car, and they don’t appear out of nowhere like a motorcycle driven at high speeds.  Accidents are often no worse than if you were running at top speed or riding a bicycle.
2. The test of time has shown the following: Golf carts used on public roads should have headlights, taillights, brake lights, signal lights and reflectors. This allows all vehicles around them to be able to see them and be able to anticipate their movements particularly after dark.  Emergency brakes, horn and rear-view mirrors should also be required.  Any use where speeds can be attained of over 11 miles/hour seat belts should be worn, particularly by children.  (Testing has shown that 11 mi/hr (17km/hr) is the speed in which people can be ejected out of the side of a golf cart when taking a sudden sharp turn.)  And as seat belt use in cars has proven – they work.  More recent studies specifically on seat belts and golf carts conclusively show that seat belt should be use on all golf carts and discredit the argument that you should be able to leap from your cart to avoid an upcoming accident.18
3. As golf carts are vehicles, they should carry liability insurance. Other types of insurance such as collision, theft, and medical if available are recommended.
4. Golf carts should be allowed on streets where the speed limit is 40 km/hr or less. That would include laterals where business congregate allowing the golf cart to participate in local commerce. Ideally the speeds limits where there are mixed use of roads including pedestrian traffic and crossings should be 40 km/hr or less. A 15 km speed difference at these speeds only slightly raises the risk of accidents (4%)  and with proper signage and policing of speed limits should result in greater safety for all involved.  Most laterals in Nayarit also have a fair amount of pedestrian traffic walking around parked cars and blocked off areas of the sidewalk. The International Transport Forum of which Mexico is a member along with 58 other countries states “The design of the road system and the speed limits set for it must consider the forces the human body can tolerate and survive. Working towards a Safe System, reasonable speed limits are 30 km/h in built up areas where there is a mix of vulnerable road users and motor vehicle traffic. In other areas with intersections and high risk of side collisions 50 km/h is appropriate. … In urban areas, speeds above 50 km/h are not acceptable, with the exception of limited access arterial roads with no interaction with non-motorised traffic. Where motorised vehicles and vulnerable road users share the same space, such as in residential areas, 30 km/h is the recommended maximum “¹⁹
5. Golf carts should be allowed to cross streets and highways that have higher speed limits wherever there are traffic lights, or it can be determined that it is safe. As most traffic crossing in the state of Nayarit never reaches speeds above 20-25 km/hr golf carts have no trouble keeping up.
6. As has been determined in a number of areas in the US, golf carts should be allowed in the right hand shoulder of busy roads so that they do not impede faster traffic. Such should be the case on laterals where there are two lanes.  Golf carts whenever possible should use the right hand lane, and pull over to the right whenever possible to allow regular vehicles to pass safely.
7. Licencing of golf carts is generally not a requirement. Some states and many cities use a registration to allow for inspections to make sure proper lighting and safety features are being utilized by the golf cart.  Central data bases of registration also allow for the tracking of vehicles, particularly stolen ones.  Regular Low speed vehicles, which go faster than 20 mi/hr and less than 25 require the same licencing as regular vehicles.  A few areas, like California require each golf cart to get a 17 digit serial number and be licenced.
8. Golf carts should never be driving on highways that have a speed limit of greater than 50 km/hour unless there is a wide shoulder and local governments have determined it to be safe. In that case hazard lights and a slow moving sign should be used so the vehicle can be seen at greater distances.
9. Alcohol and golf carts should never go together, and fines should represent the seriousness of driving under the influence.

 

Lake Chapala, Jalisco

Golf carts are a staple of the older retirement communities in Mexico.  Chapala and Jalisco have recently passed new traffic laws, and while not directly addressing golf carts is allowing carts to circulate unhindered on all city roads apart from the highways.  There currently is no licensing of golf carts in Jalisco and those which have motorcycle plates will not be considered highway legal.¹²  According to local rental companies in Chapala, golf carts are allowed on the laterals (due to the lower speed limit) and are allowed to cross the highways, recommending crossing at lights.¹³

 

What we are asking

 

1. That golf carts be allowed to cross the main highway at traffic lights and be allowed to travel on the laterals. When on laterals golf carts should whenever possible use the right-hand lane allowing impatient and speeding drivers access to pass.
2. The speed limits on the laterals should be set at 30 km/hr anywhere there are pedestrians and incoming or outgoing traffic. At the very least 40 km/hr. Current signage is confusing and often lacking. In Bucerias we have signs on the right-hand side of a lateral posting the speed at 60, while on the left-hand side 50 and a slight way back 30.
3. The Golf Cart Owners Association of Banderas Bay would undertake the following:

• We would post at all intersections where there are traffic lights, signage stating that this is a golf cart crossing location. Signs would be of the same grade, size and quality as normal road signs with reflective 3M coatings to easily be seen day or night. They would be installed on proper signposts. If the traffic police determine that certain crossings – such as at Centro in Bucerias (where the taxis congregate and the bus terminal is) are too congested, then we could install signage stating that no golf carts may cross. Cities initially affected would be Bucerias and LaCruz. Nuevo Vallarta currently is well signed and does not require highway crossings. Other areas such as Sayulity and Punta de Mita have appeared to have resolved their issues.
• We would also make sure that speed limit signs are installed on the right-hand side of all laterals clearly posting the speed limits.
• We would use our platform to ensure that all golf cart owners are aware of the need for lights, brake and signal lights, horn, rear view mirror, reflectors, emergency brakes etc. we would also help keep them informed that they are not allowed to drive golf carts on beaches or on the highways. Should the governing bodies determine to pass legislation, golf carts driving on laterals or other busy streets without signal/brake lights etc. or seat belts should be given warnings and ticketed. Golf carts being driven at night without lights should also be ticketed.
• We would encourage all cart owners to obtain liability insurance and other insurance coverages. As this is not a requirement of regular vehicle owners in Mexico, like it is in Canada and the US, we could only encourage not require unless legislation required.
• We also have as members of our association retired individuals who worked in governments writing policy and laws and who would be able to assist the State in drafting legislation if need be.

 

Golf carts use age and demand in the tourist zones of Nayarit is on a steep upward curve. Providing the tourism industry with the ability to meet that demand will be very good for the economy and for the quality of life of visitors, expats and local inhabitants. With proper signage and dedicated policing safety can be maintained and increased for all residents. Some of the increased demand on vehicle parking can also be curbed.

Sources:

1. Safety Concerns Rise As Golf Carts Take to the Streets in Insurance Journal 2010 https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2010/06/22/110892.htm
2. The Mostly Safe Golf Cart in the New York Times https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/04/business/retirement/the-mostly-safe-golf-cart.html%20%20(New%20York%20Times)
3. Sun City residents celebrate new golf-cart law in AZ Central
4. https://www.azcentral.com/story/news/local/surprise/2014/08/14/golf-carts-rule-roads-sun-city/14095291/
5. Policy and Design Considerations for Accommodating Low-Speed Vehicles and Golf Carts in Community Transportation Networks by AARP Public Policy Institute https://assets.aarp.org/rgcenter/ppi/liv-com/insight54.pdf
6. Golf Card Crashes with Fatalities and the use of Seat Belts http://www.golfcartsafety.com/blog/2014/04/22/golf-card-crashes-with-fatalities-and-the-use-of-seat-belts
7. Golf Cart Accidents on the Rise by CED Technologies http://www.cedtechnologies.com/golf-cart-accidents-rise-still/
8. Golf Cart Related Injuries in the U.S, in American Journal of Preventative Medicine https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5314551_Golf_Cart-Related_Injuries_in_the_US
9. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db185.htm
10. Golf Cart Transportation Program of Palm Desert cityofpalmdesert.org/departments/public-works/engineering-/transportation-/golf-cart-program
11. Are Golf Carts the Future of Electric Vehicles. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/are-lsev-golf-carts-future-of-electric-vehicles/
12. Chapala Traffic Regulations Go Into Effect Next Week in the Guadalajara Reporter https://theguadalajarareporter.net/index.php/news/news/lake-chapala/53248-chapala-traffic-regulations-go-into-effect-next-week
13. http://www.lakechapalagolfcarts.com/rules-of-the-road.html
14. Speed and Accident Risk by The European Commission https://ec.europa.eu/transport/road_safety/specialist/knowledge/speed/speed_is_a_central_issue_in_road_safety/speed_and_accident_risk_en
15. Relationship between Speed and Risk of Fatal Injury: Pedestrians and Car Occupants by Department for Transportation, London 2010. https://nacto.org/docs/usdg/relationship_between_speed_risk_fatal_injury_pedestrians_and_car_occupants_richards.pdf
16. Speed and the Risk Injury for Different Speed Levels by The European Commission https://ec.europa.eu/transport/road_safety/specialist/knowledge/speed/speed_is_a_central_issue_in_road_safety/speed_and_the_injury_risk_for_different_speed_levels_en
17. Vehicle Performance Characteristics and Seat Belt Efectiveness in Low Soeed Vehicles and Golf Cars https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/94b7/934cc1a2d533c974acb2d5b14bcc39bc00fa.pdf
18. Speed and Crash Risk by International Transport Forum https://www.itf-oecd.org/sites/default/files/docs/speed-crash-risk.pdf
19. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION – National Highway Traffic Safety Administration – 49 CFR Part 571 https://one.nhtsa.gov/cars/rules/rulings/lsv/lsv.html